Sound Changes of the Indo-European Stop Consonants

Out of interest I cre­ated the con­son­ant tables below. These roughly show the devel­op­ment of stop con­son­ants from Proto-Indo-European to vari­ous Indo-European lan­guages. I grouped them in this way to show the mer­ging of some of the con­son­ants bet­ter, show­ing things such as the fol­low­ing centum and satem lan­guage dif­fer­ence nicely:

	kʷ	gʷ	gʷʰ	labiovelars	Merged in satem lan­guages
Merged in centum lan­guages	k	g	gʰ	plain velars
	ḱ	ǵ	ǵʰ	pal­atovelars	Assib­il­ated in satem lan­guages

The Proto-Indo-European stop consonants:

p	t	ḱ	k	kʷ
b	d	ǵ	g	gʷ
bʰ	dʰ	ǵʰ	gʰ	gʷʰ

The fol­low­ing are centum languages.

Lat­in:

p	t	c [k]		qu [kʷ]; c [k]
b	d	g		u/​v [w>v]; gu [ɡʷ]
b; f	d; f; b	h; h/​g		f; g/​u [w]; gu [ɡʷ]

Greek:

p	t	k		p; t; k
b	d	g		b; d; g
ph [pʰ]	th [tʰ]	kh [kʰ]		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; kh [kʰ]

Proto-Ger­man­ic:

f [ɸ]	þ [θ]	h [x]		hw [xʷ]
p	t	k		kw [kʷ]
b [b~β]	d [d~ð]	g [ɡ~ɣ]		gw [gʷ~ɣʷ]; b; g; w

Proto-Celt­ic:

ɸ; b; w; p	t	k		kʷ
b	d	g		b
				gʷ

The fol­low­ing are satem languages.

Sanskrit:

p; ph [pʰ]	t; th [t̪ʰ]	ś [ɕ]	k; c [t͡ɕ]; kh [kʰ]
b; bh	d; dh	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ]	g; j [d͡ʑ]; gh; h [ɦ]
bh [bʱ]	dh [dʱ]	h [ɦ]	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ]

Old Church Slavic:

p	t	s	k; č [tʃ]; c [ts]
b	d	z	g; ž [ʒ]; dz

Lithuani­an:

p	t	š [ʃ]	k
b	d	ž [ʒ]	g

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An example of these changes from the Proto-Indo-European word for “heart”:

Proto-Indo-European	ḱḗr/ḱr̥d-
Eng­lish (See Proto-Germanic)	heart
Lat­in	cor/­cord-
Greek	kardiá
Ger­man (See Proto-Germanic)	Herz
Welsh (See Proto-Celtic)	craidd
Irish (See Proto-Celtic)	croí
Rus­si­an (See Old Church Slavic)	sérdce
Lithuani­an	šird­is